Chambers 1728/II

Efraim Chambers, Cyclopaedia: Or, An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences; containtg The Deffinitions of the Terms; And Accounts of The Things signify’d thereby, In the several Arts, Both Liberal and Mechanical, And the several Sciences, Human and Divine: The Figures, Kinds, Properties, Productions, Preparations, and Uses, of Things Natural and Artificial, The Rise, Progress, and State of Things Ecclesiastical, Civil, Military, and Commercial: With the several Systems, Sests, Opinions, &c. among Philosophers, Divines, Mathematicians, Physicians, Antiquaries, Criticks, &c. II, London [James and John Knapton – John Darby – Daniel Midwinter, & all.] 1728.

p. 457

Lime

LIME, Calcined Stone, Marble, Free-stone, Chalk, or other Matter burnt by a large Fire in a Kiln or Furnace built express; to be afterwards used in the Composition of Mortar, for building; the Fire taking away all its Humidity, and opening its Pores, so that it becomes easily reducible to Powder. Quick Lime or Unslack’d Lime is that which comes out of the Furnace; Slack’d Lime is that wash’d or steep’d in Water, and reserv’d for the making of Mortar. The best Lime is that made of the hardest and firmest Stones, and which is slack’d at its coming out of the Furnace. Sir H. Wotton looks on it as a great Error in the English to make Lime as they do, of Refuse, and Stuff without any Choice; whereas the Italians, at this day, and much more the Antients, burnt their firmest Stones, and even Fragments of Marble where it was plentiful; which in time became almost Marble again for its hardness, as appears in their standing Theatres, &c.

We have two kinds of Lime in common use in England; the one made of Stone, and the other of Chalk; whereof the former is much the strongest. That made of soft Stone or Chalk is fittest for plaistering of Ceilings and Walls within doors; and that made of hard Stones, for Buildings and for plaistering without doors. Good Lime may also be made of Mill-stone, not coarse and sandy, but fine and greasy; as also of all kinds of Flints; tho’tis hard to burn’m, unless in a Reverberatory Furnace, as being apt to run to Glass.

Dieussant [!] recommends Lime made of Sea-shells as the best, but Goldman finds fault with it, as being impatient of Moisture, and therefore easily peeling off from the Outsides of Walls: It is, however, the common Lime used in the Indies.

Before the Stones be thrown into the Kiln, they are to be broke in pieces; otherwise the Air contain’d in their Cavities, too much expanded by the Heat, makes ’em fly with so much violence as to damage the Kiln. According to Alberti and Palladio, Lime will not be sufficiently burnt in less than sixty Hours intense Heat. The Marks of a well-burnt Lime, according to Alberti, are, that its Weight is to that of the Stone in a sesqui-alterate Proportion; that it is white, light, and sonorous; that when slaked it sticks to the Sides of the Vessel: To which Boeckler adds, that when slaked it sends forth a copious thick Smoak; and Dieussant [!], that it needs a great deal of Water to slake it.

To preserve Lime several Years, slake and work it up; dig a Pit under ground, into which let it pass thro a hole open at the bottom of the Vessel. As soon as the Pit is full, cover it up with Sand, to prevent its drying; thus keeping it moist till it be used. Boeckler gives another Method: Cover a Stratum of Lime two or three foot high with another of Sand of the like height; pour on Water enough to slake the Lime, but not to reduce it to dust after slaking. If the Sand cleave into Chinks, as the Smoak ascends, cover’em up, so as no Vent may be given thereto. This Lime, he adds, kept ten or twelve Years, will be like Glue; and will, further, be of particular Use in painting Walls, as being no way prejudicial to the Colours. See Mortar.

Lime is much used by Tanners, Skinners, &c. in the Preparation of their Leather.

Lime, or Calx, in Chymistry, is a kind of fine Powder, or Ashes remaining of Metals or Minerals, that have been a long time in a violent Fire. See Calx.

p. 457

Limning

LIMNING, the Art of Painting in Water-Colours; in contradistinction to Painting properly so called, which is done in Oil-Colours.

Limning is much the more Ancient Kind of Painting : Till a Flemish Painter, one John van Eyck, better known by the Name of John of Bruges, found out the Art of Painting in Oil, the Painters all painted in Water and in Fresco alone, both on their Walls, on Wooden Boards, and elsewhere. When they made use of Boards, they usually glued a fine Linnen Cloth over ’em; to prevent their opening; then laid on a Ground of White; lastly, they mix’d up their Colours with Water and Size, or with Water and Yolks of Eggs, well beaten with the Branches of a Fig-Tree, the Juice whereof thus mix’d with the Eggs; and with this Mixture they painted their Pieces.

In Limning all the Colours are proper enough, excepting the White made of Lime, which is only used in Fresco. But the Azure and Ultramarine must always be mix’d up with Size, or with Gum, in regard the Yolks of Eggs give yellow Colours a greenish Tincture. But there are always applied two Lays of hot Size e’er the Colours, mix’d even with Size, are laid on: the Composition made with Eggs, and the Juice of the Fig-tree, being only used for touching up and finishing, and to prevent the Necessity of having a Fire always at hand to keep the Size hot; yet ’tis certain, that the Size-Colours hold the best, and are accordingly always used in Cartoons, &c. This Size is made of Shreds of thin Leather, or of Parchment.

To limn on Linnen, they chuse that which is old, half worn, and close. This they stamp with White Lead, or with a fine Plaister beaten up with Size; which once dry, they go over it with a Lay of the same Size.

The Colours are all ground in Water, each by itself; and in proportion as they are required in working, are diluted with Size-Water. If the Yolks of Eggs are desired, they dilute ’em with Water made of equal Quantities of common Water and Vinegar, with the Yolk, White and Shell of an Egg, and the Ends of the little Branches of a Fig-tree cut small, all well beaten together in an Earthen Pan.

If ’tis desired to varnish the Piece when finish’d, they go over it with the White of an Egg well beaten, and then with Varnish. This, however, is only to preserve it from the Wet: for the great Advantage of Limning consists in its being free from any Lustre; in regard all its Colours thus void of Lustre may be seen in all kinds of Lights ; which Colours in Oil, or cover’d with Varnish, can’t.

p. 582

Mortar

MORTAR, or Morter, in Architecture, is a Preparation of Lime, Sand, &c. mixed up with Water; serving, as a Cement, to bind the Stones, &c. of a Building. See BUILDING, CEMENT, &c.

The Antients had a kind of Mortar so very hard and binding, that, after so long a Duration, ’tis next to impossible to separate the Parts of some of their Buildings; tho’ there are some who ascribe that excessive Strength to Time, and the Influences of certain Properties in the Air, which is found to harden some Bodies very surprizingly.

De Lorme observes, that the best Mortar is that made of Puzzuoli; adding, that it penetrates black Flints, and turns’em white.

The Lime used in the antient Mortar is said to be burnt from the hardest Stones, and even Fragments of Marble. See LIME.

Mr. Worledge observes, that fine Dust makes weak Mortar; and the rounder the Sand, the stronger the Mortar. He therefore advises the Sand to be washed e’er mixed; and adds, that dirty Water weakens the Mortar considerably. See SAND.

The Proportion of Lime and Sand in our common Mortar is extremely variable. Vitruvius prescribes three parts of Pit-Sand and two of River-Sand to one of Lime; but the Sand here seems to be over-dosed. About London, the Proportion of Sand to quick Lime is as 36 to 25. In some Parts they use equal Quantities of each.

Wolfius observes, that the Sand should be dry and sharp, so as to prick the Hands when rubbed; yet not earthy, so as to foul the Water it is wash’d in.

Vitruvius observes, that Fossil-Sands dry sooner than those taken out of Rivers. Whence, he adds, the latter is fittest for the Insides, the former for the Outsides of a Building. He Subjoins, that Fossil-Sand lying long in the Air, becomes earthy. Palladio takes notice, that of all Sands white ones are the worst; the reason is owing to their want of Asperity.

Mixing and tempering of MORTAR;

M. Felibien observes that the Antient Masons were so very scrupulous herein, that the Greeks kept ten Men constantly employ’d for a long space of time, to each Bason, which render’d it of such prodigious Hardness, that Vitruvius tells us the Pieces of Plaister falling off from old Walls served to make Tables. Felibien adds, it is a Maxim among old Masons to their Labourers, that they should dilute with the Sweat of their Brow, i.e. labour it a long time, instead of drowning it with Water, to have done the sooner.

Besides the common Mortar used in laying of Stones, Bricks, &c. there are several other kinds. As,

White MORTAR, used in Plaistering the Walls and Ceilings; made of Ox-Hair mixed with Lime and Water, without any Sand. See PLAISTER.

The MORTAR used in making of Water-Courses, Cisterns, &c. is very hard and durable, made of Lime and Hog’s Grease, sometimes mix’d with the Juice of Figs, and sometimes with liquid Pitch: after Application it is washed over with Linseed-Oil. See CISTERN.

MORTAR for Furnaces, &c. is made with red Clay wrought in Water, wherein Horse-Dung and Chimney-Soot has been steep’d. See FURNACE.

MORTAR for Sun-Dials on Walls may be made of Lime and Sand temper’d with Linseed Oil; or, for want of that, with scumm’d Milk. This will grow to the Hardness of a Stone.

In Buildings, one part of wash’d Soap-Ashes mixed with another of Lime and Sand, make a very durable Mortar.

p. 735–736

Painting

PAINTING, the Art of representing natural Bodies, and giving ’em a Kind of Life, by the Turn of Lines, and the Degrees of Colours.

Painting is said to have had its Rise among the Egyptians: And the Greeks, who learn’d it of ’em, carried it to its Perfection; if we may believe the Stories related of their Apelles, and Zeuxis.

The Romans were not without considerable Masters in this Art, in the later Times of the Republic, and under the first Emperors; but the Inundation of Barbarians, who ruin’d Italy, proved fatal to Painting, and almost reduced it to its first Elements. It was in Italy, however, that the Art returned to its ancient Honour, and in the Beginning of the XVth Century; when Cimabue, betaking himself to the Pencil, translated the poor Remains of the Art, from a Greek Painter or two, into his own Country.

He was seconded by some Florentines: The first who got any Reputation was Ghirlandaio, Michael Angelo’s Master; Pietro Perugino, Raphael Urbin’s Master; and Andrea Verocchio, Leonardo Da Vinci’s Master.

But the Scholars far surpassed the Masters; they not only effaced all that had been done before ’em, but carried Painting to a Pitch from which it has ever since been declining. ’Twas not by their own noble Works alone that they advanc’d Painting; but by the Number of Pupils they bred up, and the Schools they form’d.

Angelo, in particular, founded the School of Florence; Raphael, the School of Rome; and Leonardo, the School of Milan; to which must be added, the Lumbard School, establish’d about the same time, and which became very considerable under Giorgione and Titian. See SCHOOL.

Besides the Italian Masters, there were others on this Side the Alps, who had no Communication with those of Italy; such were Albert Durer, in Germany; Holbens, in Switzerland; Lucas, in Holland; and others in France and Flanders: but Italy, and particularly Rome, was the Place where the Art was practis’d with the greatest Success; and where, from Time to Time, the greatest Masters were produced.

To Raphael’s School, succeeded that of the Caraches, which has lasted, in its Scholars, almost to the present Time; wherein the French Painters, by the Munificence of the late Louis XIV. seem almost in Condition to vie with those of Greece or Italy.

In Paris they have two considerable Bodies of Painters, the one, the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture, the other the Community of Masters in Painting, Sculpture, &c. See ACADEMY.

The Art of Painting is divided, by Fresnoy, into three principal Parts, Invention, Design, and Colouring; to which some add a fourth, viz. Disposition.

Felibien divides Painting into the Composition, the Design, and Colouring.

Mons. Testling, Painter to the late King, divides it, somewhat more accurately, into the Design or Draught, the Proportion, the Expression, the Clair-obscure, the Ordonnance, and the Colouring; to which his English Translator adds the Perspective. Under each of these Heads, he gives us the Rules and Sentiments of the best Masters, which see under their proper Articles in this Dictionary, DESIGN, PROPORTION, EXPRESSION, CLAIR-OBSCURE, ORDONNANCE, COLOURING, &c.

Painting is of various Kinds, with regard to the Materials us’d; the Matter whereon they are applied; and the Manner of applying ’em.

Hence come Painting in Oil; Painting in Water-Colours, or Limning; Painting in Fresco; Painting on Glass; Painting in Enamel; and Painting in Miniature.

Painting in Oil

PAINTING in Oil. The Art of Painting in Oil was unknown to the Ancients; and it was a Flemish Painter, one John van Eyck, or John de Bruges, who first discover’d and put it in practice in the Beginning of the XIVth Century: “Till him, all the Painters wrought in Fresco, or in Water-Colours.

This was an Invention of the utmost Advantage to the Art; since, by means hereof, the Colours of a Painting are preserv’d much longer and better, and receive a Lustre and Sweetness which the Ancients cou’d never attain to, what Varnish soever they made use of to cover their Pieces.

The whole Secret only consists in grinding the Colours with Nut-Oil or Linseed Oil: But it must be own’d, the Manner of Working is very different from that in Fresco, or in Water; by reason the Oil does not dry near so fast; which gives the Painter an Opportunity of touching and retouching all the Parts of his Figures, as often as he pleases; Which, in the other Kinds, is a Thing impracticable.

The Figures too are here capable of more Force and Boldness; in as much as the Black becomes blacker, when ground with Oil than with Water; besides that, all the Colours, mixing better together, make the Colouring sweeter, more delicate and agreeable, and give an Union and Tenderness to the whole Work, inimitable in any of the other Manners.

Painting in Oil is perform’d on Walls, on Wood, Canvas, Stones and all Sorts of Metals.

To Paint on a Wall

To PAINT on a Wall: when well dry, they give it two or three Washes of boiling Oil; till the Plaster remain quite greasy, and will imbibe no more. Over this they apply dessiccative or drying Colours, viz. white Chalk, red Oker, or other Chalks beaten pretty stiff. This Couch or Lay being well dry, they sketch out, and design their Subject; and at last paint it over, mixing a little Varnish with their Colours; to save the Varnishing afterwards.

Others, to fortify their Wall the better against Moisture, cover it with a Plaster of Lime, Marble-Dust, or a Cement made of beaten Tiles soak’d with Linseed Oil; and at last prepare a Composition of Greek Pitch, Mastic and thick Varnish boil’d together, which they apply hot over the former Plaster: When dry, they lay on their Colours as before.

Others, in fine, make their Plaster with Lime-Mortar, Tile-Cement, and Sand; and this dry, apply another of Lime, Cement, and Machefer or Iron Scum; which being well beaten and incorporated with Whites of Eggs and Linseed Oil, makes an excellent Couch or Plaster. When dry, the Colours are applied as before.

To Paint on Wood

To PAINT on Wood; they usually give their Ground a Couch or Lay of White temper’d with Size; or they apply the Oil abovementioned: The rest, as in Painting on Walls.

To Paint on Linnen or Canvas

To PAINT on Linnen or Canvas; the Canvas being stretch’d on a Frame, they give it a Couch or Lay of Size: When dry, they go over it with a Pumice-Stone, to smooth off the Knots. By means of the Size the little Threads and Hairs are all laid close on the Cloth, and the little Holes stopp’d up, so as no Colour can pass thro’.

When the Cloth is dry, they lay on Oker, which is a natural Earth, and bears a Body; sometimes, mixing with it a little white Lead to make it dry the sooner. When dry, they go over it with the Pumice-Stone to make it smooth.

After this, they sometimes add a second Lay composed of white Lead, and a little Charcoal Black, to render the Ground of an Ash-Colour, observing in each Manner to lay on as little Colour as possible, that the Cloth may not break, and that the Colours, when they come to be painted over, may preserve the better.

In some Paintings of Titian and Paolo Veronese we find they made their Ground with Water, and painted over it with Oil; which contributed much to the Vivacity and Freshness of their Works: For the Water Ground, by imbibing the Oil of the Colours, leaves them the more beautiful; the Oil itself taking away a deal of their Vivacity.

As little Oil therefore is to be used as possible, if ’tis desired to have the Colours keep fresh: For this Reason some mix ’em up with Oil of Aspic, which evaporates immediately, yet serves to make ’em manageable with the Pencil.

To Paint on Stones or Metals

To PAINT on Stones or Metals, ’tis not necessary to apply Size, as on Cloth; it suffices to add a slight Couch of Colours, before you draw your Design; nor is even this done, on Stones where ’tis desired the Ground shou’d appear, as incertain Marbles of extraordinary Colours.

All the Colours used in Fresco are good in Oil, except White of Lime and Marble-Dust. See COLOUR.

Those chiefly used are White Lead or Ceruss, yellow and white Massicot, Orpiment, Black Lead, Cinnabar or Vermillion, Lacca, blue and green Ashes, Indigo, Lamp-Black, Burnt Ivory, and Verdigrease, &c. See the Preparation, &c. of each under its proper Article, CERUSS, ORPIMENT, VERMILLION, LACCA, INDIGO, &c.

As to Oils, the best are those of Walnuts, of Linseed, Aspic, and Turpentine. The desiccative or drying Oils, are a Nut-Oil boil’d with Litharge and Sandarac, others with Spirit of Wine, Mastic and Gum-Lacca. See VARNISH.

To have a Varnish that shall dry readily, they mix Spirit of Wine with Turpentine.

PAINTING in Water-Colours. See LIMNING.
PAINTING in Fresco. See FRESCO.
PAINTING in Miniature. See MINIATURE.
PAINTING on Glass. See GLASS.
PAINTING in Enamel. See ENAMEL.
PAINTING in Mosaic. See MOSAIC-WORK.